Interview

Interviewing is a planned process of eliciting verbal responses from the person we are talking to. In the research process, it is performed in order to examine individuals and groups of people, and obtain new knowledge. Since it elicits a phenomenon, it is considered a type of an experiment. Interviewing is mostly used in professional orientation. When we are certain or at least suppose that the easiest way of obtaining certain knowledge is through personal contact, we should use interview rather than survey or some other technique. When used by extremely experienced researchers, it can be very convenient, and yields successful results.

There are numerous reasons and needs for using an interview, and they may depend on specific categories of interviewees. We usually opt for an interview when the objective of the interview is clearly stated in the project. We need to get familiar with the setting, groups or interviewees before we begin an interview. The participants should voluntarily answer the questions. The main answers or impressions should be recorded in the form of minutes, and finally, the results should be sorted out, and answers and impressions arranged so as to have a scientific value (Krulj, 2007, p. 64).

An interview as a research procedure can be classified according to several different criteria. Based on the content and the way they are carried out, interviews can be divided into:

• structured – the questions are pre-defined, asked in a pre-prepared order. It is similar to a questionnaire. It is usually analytical, and easy to implement. Such tightly controlled interviews ensure that the interviewee focuses on the target topic area, and that the interview covers a well-defined domain, which makes the answers comparable across different respondents. On the other hand, there is little room for variation or spontaneity in the responses because the interviewer is to record the responses according to a coding scheme. There is also very little flexibility in the way questions are asked because by adopting a standardized format, it is hoped that nothing will be left to chance. This interview type is appropriate when the researcher is aware of what he/she does not know, and can frame questions that will yield the needed answers (Dörnyei, 2007, p. 135).
• unstructured – it is more like a discussion, i.e. the answers are spontaneous, but it is more difficult to implement. It allows maximum flexibility to follow the interviewee in unpredictable directions, with only minimal interference from the research agenda. The intention is to create the atmosphere in which the interviewee may reveal more than he/she would in formal contexts, with the interviewer assuming the listening role. No detailed interview guide is prepared in advance, although the researcher usually thinks of a few (1–6) opening questions to elicit the interviewee’s story. During the interview, the researcher may ask an occasional question for clarification, and may give some reinforcement feedback to keep the interview moving, but interruptions are kept to a minimum. So, a positive rapport needs to be established with the interviewee. This kind of interview is most acceptable when a study focuses on the deeper meaning of a particular phenomenon, or when some personal historical account of how a particular phenomenon has developed is required (Dörnyei, 2007, p. 136).
• semi-structured – there is a set of pre-prepared open-ended questions and topics that need to be covered during the conversation, but the interviewer may follow the lines of enquiry in the conversation that stray from the guide if they find it appropriate, and elaborate on the issues raised in an exploratory manner. It is suitable when the researcher has a good enough overview of the phenomenon or domain in question, and is able to develop broad questions about the topic in advance, but does not want to use the ready-made response categories that would limit the depth and breadth of the respondent’s story. Usually the interviewer will ask the same questions to all the participants, but not necessarily in the same order or wording, and would supplement the main questions with the various probes (Dörnyei, 2007, p. 136).

Based on the participants, i.e. interviewees, we can distinguish between:

• direct interview (the conversation with the interviewees) and
• indirect interview (the conversation with the interviewee’s family, friends, etc.).

Depending on the number of interviewees, we can distinguish between:

• individual interview (the conversation with one person) and
• group interview (the conversation with several people) (Mužić, 1977, p. 250).

As for the preparation for an interview, it is very important to define the place where the interview will be held. This is so because the setting itself may significantly affect the atmosphere during the interview. It is important to select such a place that will help to build the trust between the interviewer and interviewees.

The next step involves defining the time, and making sure that the people who are to be interviewed appear. It would be good to get informed about the interviewees in advance, though it may lead to some prejudice, which can affect the results.

The interviewees should not be prepared for the interview in advance, though there are different opinions about this. Sometimes the interviewees participate in such activities for the first time, and due to enormous pressure, may provide less accurate information. In such cases, some prior preparation of participants is justified.

As for the content of the interview, the interviewer has to determine clearly and precisely which information is needed and which is not, and explain the concepts thoroughly according to it. A good interview guide requires careful planning followed by some piloting in order to ensure that the questions elicit sufficiently rich data (Dörnyei, 2007, p. 137). The guide serves as the main research instrument – it ensures that the domain is properly covered, and that nothing important is left out by accident; it suggests appropriate question wording, and offers a list of probe questions to be used if needed, as well as a template for the opening statement, and it lists some comments to bear in mind (Dörnyei, 2007, p. 137).

According to Dörnyei (2007, pp. 137–138), a variety of questions can be included in an interview, but they only provide a framework whereas the real meaning is usually uncovered through explanatory and unstructured responses that deviate from the interview guide. The first few questions are particularly important, not so much from the content point of view, but rather because they set the tone, and create the initial rapport. If they make the interviewees feel competent, they will relax and be encouraged to open up. These questions are often quite personal. As for the content of the questions, there are 6 main types that may be asked on any possible topic, and they focus on: (a) experience and bahaviour, (b) opinions and values, (c) feelings, (d) knowledge, (e) sensory information, and (f) background or demographic information. The emergent nature of qualitative interview data can be enhanced by applying various probes, using what the interviewee has said as a starting point to go further and increase the richness and depth of the responses. They may include detail-oriented and clarification questions. The final closing question permits the interviewee to have the final say. As simple a question as: Is there anything else you would like to add? has proven to have the power to elicit extremely rich data (Dörnyei, 2007, p. 138).

Creating a relaxed atmosphere and establishing rapport: it has already been mentioned that a favourable atmosphere is one of the preconditions for the successful implementation of interviews. In addition to the atmosphere, attention should be paid to the interviewees’ attitudes towards the interview. Moreover, when it comes to some sensitive topics, anonimity should be promised, and the promise should be kept. It is necessary to explain that there are no good and bad answers, only sincere and insincere ones, and that the interview is not an exam. If the interviewee is in a hurry, we should show them that we respect their time. If the interviewer and interviewees have not met before, the former is obliged to introduce himself/herself, to be cordial, and start the conversation in a professional manner.

All the above-mentioned factors are extremely important for creating a relaxed atmosphere and establishing the first contact. However, the success of an interview depends very much on the interviewer’s personality, as well as on their gender, age, social status, but also on how familiar they are with the subject matter, how interested in the conversation with the interviewees they are, as well as on their approach, tone of voice, clothes, etc. (Mužić, 1977, p. 255).

Carrying out the interview: the way in which an interview is carried out depends on the type of the interview and the topic of the conversation. It is important to keep the pace, not to stray from the topic, not to enter into a discussion with the interviewee, except when it is necessary to provoke them to express their opnion more accurately. The interviewers should not express their opinion because it may affect the interviewees’ answers, thus affecting the results.

As for the topics, they can be more or less complex. With less complex topics, there are rarely problems in conversation. The only problem may be extremely short answers or answers not relating to the question. With complex topics, the interviewer has to be skillful and experienced, showing in certain situations that they are well familiar with the topic, that they have knowledge on the subject matter, and understand it (Mužić, 1977, p. 256).

A good qualitative interview flows naturally, with the various parts connecting seamlessly, and is rich in detail. The interviewer is there primarily to listen, and let the interviewee dictate the pace without being rushed or interrupted, trying to be as neutral as possible. The questions should be asked in a straightforward, clear and non-threatening way, without any cues that would lead the interviewee in a particular direction, and the interviewer should give the message that he/she enjoys the interview. The end of the interview can be signalized by summarizing or recapping the main points, which will also allow the interviewee to correct anything that may have been misunderstood, and to make additional points.

The protocol or minutes represents the result of interviewing. It is a document which contains the information obtained during an interview. The general information on the interviewer, interviewees, time and place of the interview are provided in the header of the protocol, whereas the title of the project within the framework of which interviewing has been performed is provided in the right-hand corner.

The content of an interview depends on the type of the interview. If the interview is structured, the interviewees answer the questions and the interviewer notes the answers, which means that the interviewer has the minutes in front of themselves, whereas in case of an unstructured interview, the interviewer usually does not have a protocol in front of themselves, and thus establishes a good rapport with the interviewees. The responses are recorded afterwards, preferably immediately after the interview in order to prevent forgetting. The interview can also be recorded, which is extremely useful because then the responses cannot be forgotten. Even though by doing audio recording some information such as non-verbal cues are inevitably lost, it is more often used than video recording because it is less obtrusive and much less difficult to perform, whereas there is no difference in the complexity of data amalyses (Dörnyei, 2007, p. 139).

The protocol contains the objectives of the interview, plan with the predefined duration of the interview, instructions about the interview tactics, etc. There should be some space for notes on the protocol itself, where the interviewer records their impressions about the interviewees, whether they showed signs of fatigue, had a repulsive attitude, etc. (Mužić, 1977, pp. 252–259).

In spite of being the most frequently used data collection method of qualitative research, traditional face-to-face interviews are accompanied by certain problems such as geographical distance and restricted physical mobility of participants, as well as financial issues, etc. Over the last few decades, technological changes brought forth by the development of the Internet have led to the development of the online interview in qualitative research, thus overcoming some of the limitations relating to the traditional interview method.

An online interview (also called a digital interview or virtual interview) is an interview conducted remotely using technology and appropriate software platforms.  An e-interview research framework is presented in Figure 4:

Both focus group and one-on-one interviews can be conducted in the synchronous mode (real-time) and asynchronous mode (non-real-time). Е-mail, Google questionnaires, online bulletin boards and discussion groups are the most commonly used technologies in asynchronous online interviews. To access the respective software platform, the applicants usually receive a URL link to the meeting, or meeting ID, or a username and password. Applicants must be familiar with the software chosen to conduct an interview. Applicants complete the questionnaire when they have time, and according to their ability. In this case, the focus is on the applicant’s key skills in their natural environment, when they are free of pressure and restrictions.

The synchronous mode is appropriate for applications such as Skype, Zoom, Google Hangouts, Microsoft Teams, video conferencing, and so on. These technologies allow for various options and combinations of one-to-one, one-to-many, and many-to-many communication. The advantages of using these applications are that they provide a free communication service, improve teamwork and interaction among participants, allow for flexible content sharing – without temporal or geographic limitations – and allow for audio or video interviews using a microphone and web camera.

Chat-based recruitment is on the rise because new generations of young people are entering the labor market (Millennials and Generation Z employees). So, employers use tools such as WeChat, WhatsApp and Facebook Messenger to perform pre-screening and early-stage interviews in the hiring process. Vervoe, VidCruiter, SparkHire, interviewstream, Outmatch, AllyO, Mya, and many other platforms offer a set of tools designed to support employers in the hiring process. Despite the abovementioned advantages, it should be noted that the interviewees must be digitally literate, have an access to the high speed Internet, and have some experience in on-line communication in order to take part in such interviews (Janghorban et al., 2014). Moreover, inconsistent Wi-Fi or Internet connections, poor camera/image quality, or sound issues are some of the potential problems that can occur when conducting remote online interviews.