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Research paradigms are the theoretical perspectives that shape the way research is formulated and implemented (Mackenzie & Knipe, 2006). A paradigm represents a worldview, and various philosophical assumptions associated with that point of view. Each paradigm comprises four elements:
1. Epistemology – (from the Greek ‘epistēmē’ meaning ’knowledge’) – describes how we get to know something (the truth, reality), how we know what we know, i.e. it focuses on the nature of human knowledge and comprehension and therefore influences the way of uncovering knowledge in the social context that we investigate. According to Slavin (1984), there are four sources of knowledge or epistemological bases of research. They are as follows:
2. Ontology – (from the Greek compound comprising ‘ὄντος’, meaning 'being' or 'that which is', and ’-λογία’, meaning 'logical discourse') – philosophical assumptions about the nature of reality or essence of the social phenomenon being researched, crucial to understanding how the researcher makes meaning of the collected data (Scotland, 2012).
3. Methodology – (from the Greek ’μέθοδος’, meaning ’pursuit of knowledge’, and ’λόγος’ meaning ’science’) – research designs, methods, approaches and procedures used in the research that is well planned to find out something (Keeves, 1997). It includes data collection, participants, instruments used, as well as data analyses, and focuses on how the researcher gets to know the world or gain knowledge about part of it (Moreno, 1947).
4. Axiology – (from the Greek ’axios’, meaning ’worthy’, and ’logos’, meaning ’science’) – or the Theory of Value: ethical issues, i.e. defining, evaluating, and understanding the concepts of right and wrong behaviour related to the research.
In social sciences, different paradigms can be adopted, such as positivism, interpretivism/constructivism, subjectivism, pragmatism, critical realism.
Positivism is based on the belief that there is only one and single reality, which can be explored scientifically using deductive methodology, and usually quantitative research methods such as experiment or survey. Therefore, it focuses on identifying or testing causal relationships in an objective manner.
Interpretivism/Constructivism is based on the belief that there is no single reality, and reality is socially constructed and reconstructed and therefore cannot be objectively observed from outside. The only way to better understand it is by experiencing it, so it must be observed through the direct experience of people, and therefore knowledge is subjective. Its aim is to explore, not just explain the underlying meanings of reality (Crotty, 1998). So, it uses inductive and usually qualitative methods, such as interviews, and observation, aimed at generating theory.
Realism is based on the belief that reality is independent from the human mind (Saunders et. al., 2012). Direct realism perceives the world through personal, human senses, whereas critical realism argues that senses can be deceptive, and aims at uncovering, understanding and explaining the mechanisms underlying a phenomenon from multiple perspectives. It uses both qualitative and quantitative approach and therefore a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods (Sayer, 2000).
Pragmatism focuses on the belief that there are many different ways of interpreting the world, that knowledge can never be truly representative of reality, and that the combination of different methodological approaches provides a better understanding of the phenomena being researched. It is based on ’what works best’ in finding answers to the questions under investigation and therefore uses all available approaches to understand the problem (Morgan, 2007). Its emphasis is on experience, and instead of focusing on finding the truth, it focuses on what is useful to believe (Dewey, 1941). It is action-based, and advocates human rights and individual freedom. It perceives truth as constantly changing according to practical necessities of the present (Creswell, 2009).
