THEORETICAL DELIMITATION OF QUANTITATIVE STUDIES

Research methods are the various tools and techniques that researchers use to gather information and data. Research methodology, on the other hand, is a systematic approach researchers take to address research problems thoroughly. The systematic study of research methods encompasses defining research questions, selecting appropriate methods, collecting and analysing data, and drawing valid conclusions. A well-designed research methodology ensures that research is conducted accurately, efficiently, and ethically (Bhushan Mishra & Alok, 2019).

Research design, as the plan or proposal to conduct research, involves the intersection of philosophy, inquiry strategies, and specific methods (Creswell, 2014; Creswell & Clark, 2018). The blueprint provides the rationale from which researchers derive meaning at the end of their study and guides the entire research process, enabling researchers to address their research questions and objectives effectively (Mwansa et al., 2022). Quantitative research designs offer a structured and objective data collection and analysis approach. This section provides an overview of the importance of research design and introduces the key concepts related to quantitative research designs.

When conducting research, it is essential to recognise that philosophical ideas can significantly impact the practices used. These ideas should still be acknowledged, even if they are not always apparent. Individuals must explicitly state their most significant philosophical ideas in research proposals or plans to ensure transparency and clarity. This will help us understand why specific approaches, such as qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods, were chosen (Dawadi et al., 2021; Schoonenboom & Johnson, 2017). A proposal may include a section that discusses the proposed philosophical worldview of the study, a definition of the primary considerations of that worldview, and how the worldview influenced the researcher's approach to their study. The term worldview refers to a fundamental set of beliefs that guide action, which can be understood through paradigms, epistemologies, ontologies, or broadly conceived research methodologies. Worldviews serve as a general orientation about the world and the nature of research that a researcher holds.

The primary worldviews are post-positivism, constructivism, advocacy/participatory, and pragmatism.

Social constructivism, often paired with interpretivism, is a commonly used approach to qualitative research, such as advocacy/participatory research.

The Post-positivist Worldview aligns with traditional research practices and is commonly associated with quantitative research. It is also called the scientific method, positivist/post-positivist research, empirical science, and post-positivism.

The pragmatic worldview emphasises actions, situations, and consequences rather than antecedent conditions, as post-positivism does. Its primary focus is on discovering practical solutions to problems and implementing them effectively. Researchers prioritise solving the research problem by utilising all available approaches to comprehend it rather than emphasising specific methods (Kotari, 2004).

Exploring paradigm alternatives can provide a more profound comprehension of research methodologies (Tab. 2). Quantitative research depends on statistically analysed numerical data, whereas qualitative research utilises non-numerical data. These differences have sparked debates, known as 'paradigm wars', as the perceived incompatibility between quantitative and qualitative research has led to disagreements.

Quantitative and qualitative research concepts are deeply rooted in researchers' philosophies and worldviews, also known as epistemologies or assumptions. Quantitative research is commonly referred to as "realist" or "positivist," while qualitative research is associated with a "subjectivist" perspective.

Realist researchers believe that their work reveals an objective reality that already exists. To uncover this truth, they maintain that objective research methods must be employed, often drawing on techniques derived from natural sciences and adapted to social sciences.

Positivism represents the most radical manifestation of this worldview. Its adherents assert that the universe operates under unchanging principles of cause and effect. Nonetheless, we cannot entirely distance ourselves from what we are studying since we are all integral components of the world we are examining. Those who subscribe to subjectivism emphasize the significance of human subjectivity in the research process. They recognize that observing reality has a transformative effect on it, leading subjectivists to adopt a more relativistic stance.

Quantitative and qualitative research methods may be fundamentally incompatible when examining the two perspectives we have presented. Qualitative research encompasses a wide range of distinct methodologies, including participant observation, interviews, case studies, and ethnographic research.

Post-positivism, Experiential Realism and Pragmatism

Post-positivist thinkers understand the limitations of viewing the world as unbiased observers and acknowledge that natural science cannot govern all social research. Rather than pursuing absolute truth, post-positivists aim to present the most precise representation of reality possible. The principle of falsifiability, introduced by Popper, asserts that a theory's potential to be proven false is crucial in driving scientific inquiry. This implies that a theory's testability, whether through quantitative or qualitative means and its subsequent ability to be refuted or revised, are the fundamental components that propel investigation forward. Consequently, scientific inquiry is more concerned with combating errors and fallacies rather than establishing absolute truths (Burkholder et al., 2019).

Post-positivist social science focuses on our findings' dependability and capacity to anticipate results. Whether they specialize in quantitative or qualitative methods, researchers frequently take a practical research approach, using a range of techniques tailored to the issue at hand (Haig, 2017). Occasionally, a mixed-methods approach incorporating both quantitative and qualitative methods is the most suitable course of action. Nevertheless, quantitative methods are the only means to analyse numerical changes accurately.

Among the five primary research approaches, namely quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods research, arts-based research, and community-based participatory research, quantitative research stands out for its deductive approach to the research process that aims to prove, disprove, or lend credence to existing theories. Researchers measure variables and test relationships between them in this method to reveal patterns, correlations, or causal relationships. Quantitative research values neutrality, objectivity, and acquiring a comprehensive range of knowledge, such as a statistical overview from a large sample. This approach is typically suitable when the primary goal is to explain or evaluate (Leavy, 2022).

Research literature suggests that six primary types of research questions are particularly well-suited for quantitative research. These include audience segmentation, quantifying results obtained in a qualitative study, verifying data from a qualitative study, quantifying opinions, attitudes, and behaviours, explaining phenomena, and testing hypotheses. The first four types of research are referred to as "descriptive research," while the remaining two are known as "inferential research." Descriptive research relies on descriptive statistics, while inferential research employs inferential statistics.

During the initial stages of developing quantitative designs, researchers often conduct descriptive research to identify the characteristics of individuals, groups, or situations. This type of research aims to uncover new insights, describe current conditions, determine the frequency of occurrences, and classify data.

Based on the positivist philosophy of human inquiry, the quantitative research method is often regarded as the quintessential scientific approach to conducting research. Positivist research is characterised by a rigorous, systematic process emphasising rationality, objectivity, predictability, and control. Advocates of the quantitative approach are generally viewed as unbiased scientists who uncover factual data (Walker, 2005).

In quantitative research, statistics, mathematics, and numerical data processing are used to systematically and empirically study phenomena. This involves breaking down reality into smaller, more manageable pieces through the analysis of numerical data. Statistically oriented approaches are used to test and reproduce hypotheses about variable relationships by collecting and generalising data across groups of people. When designing a quantitative research study, the type of research philosophy, approach to theory development, characteristics, and research strategy are key factors to consider (Mwansa, et al., 2022). While positivism is commonly associated with quantitative research, it can adopt realistic and pragmatic philosophies. The deductive approach is strongly associated with quantitative research, while the inductive approach is rarely used (Tab. 3).

Typically categorised into three tiers: descriptive, correlational, and causal, with the latter utilising experimental designs, it aims to generalise the findings from a sample to the whole population. Various statistical techniques can be used to predict scores on one variable based on scores from another variable. Qualitative research, on the other hand, aims to achieve a deeper understanding of a particular phenomenon (Sukamolson, 2007).