Discourse analysis (or critical discourse analysis) is a research method for studying written or spoken language in relation to its social context. It examines how language functions and how meaning is created in different social contexts in order to understand how language is used in real life situations, not to understand the language itself as a system. The focus is therefore placed on the purposes and effects of different types of language, on cultural rules and conventions in communication, on how beliefs and assumptions are communicated, and how the language use relates to its social, political, and historical context.
Discourse analysis can be applied to any instance of written or oral language, but also to non-verbal aspects of communication, such as tone or gestures, because discourse is the complete system by which people communicate, it is the widest interpretation of what we call ‘language’. It includes both written, verbal and non-verbal communication, as well as wider social concepts that underpin what language means, and how it changes. For example, it can be revealing to look at how some people use a particular word, or terms from a particular local dialect. This can reveal their upbringing and life history, or influences from other people and workplace culture.
It can also be interesting to look at non-verbal communication as people’s facial expressions and hand movements are an important part of the context of what people say. But language is also a dynamic part of culture, and the meanings behind terms change over time. How we understand certain terms tells us a lot not just about the times we live in or the people using those terms, but also about groups that have power to change the discourse.
Language is more than a neutral way of communicating, it is deeply connected with actions and personal identity, and can even shape the way we think about and understand the world (Lucke, 1996, p. 12). Who we are, what we do, and our beliefs are all shaped by the language we use. This makes it a very rich field for analysis. By analysing different types of discourse such as books, newspapers, brochures, advertisements, websites, social media posts and comments, interviews and conversations, researchers try to understand social groups and how they communicate.
Discourse analysis focuses on social aspects of communication. It aims to discover how people use language to achieve certain goals (e.g. manage conflicts, build trust, create doubt). So, it focuses on larger chunks of language, on entire conversations, texts or collections of texts in an interpretive manner, and interpretations are made based on both the content of the material and on contextual knowledge.
Van Dijk (2001) states that the primary aim of critical discourse analysis is to study ‘the way social power abuse, dominance and inequality are enacted, reproduced, and resisted by text and talk in the social and political context’. Critical discourse analysts tend to understand, expose and resist social inequality by addressing social problems (Fairclough & Wodak, 1977, p. 271), but the objects under investigation need not necessarily be related to negative or exceptionally serious social or political events, i.e. the term ‘critical’ should not be confused with ‘negative’ (Wodak, 2014, p. 302). A discourse analysis includes four different steps:
- defining the research question and selecting the content of analysis – there must be a clearly defined research question, and then a range of material that is appropriate to answer it is selected (large volumes or smaller samples, depending on the aims and timescale of the research);
- gathering information and theory on the context – the social and historical context in which the material was produced and intended to be received. Facts about when and where the content was created, who the author is, who published it, and whom it was disseminated to. Also the literature review on the topic should be done, and a theoretical framework constructed to guide the analysis;
- analysing the content for themes and patterns – various elements of the material are closely examined and related to attributes, themes and patterns relevant to the research question;
- reviewing results and drawing conclusions – once particular attributes are assigned to the elements of the material, the function and meaning of the language used are examined in relation to the broader context established earlier, and conclusions are drawn that answer the research question.